Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is widely used in clinical research due to its low toxicity, low number of side effects, and low cost. Many components of common fruits and vegetables play well-documented roles as chemopreventive or chemotherapeutic agents that suppress tumorigenesis. Anthraquinones are commonly extracted from the Polygonaceae family of plants, e.g., Rheum palmatum and Rheum officinale . Some of the major chemical components of anthraquinone and its derivatives, such as aloe-emodin, danthron, emodin, chrysophanol, physcion, and rhein, have demonstrated potential anticancer properties. This review evaluates the pharmacological effects of emodin, a major component of Aloe vera . In particular, emodin demonstrates anti-neoplastic, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenesis, and toxicological potential for use in pharmacology, both in vitro and in vivo. Emodin demonstrates cytotoxic effects (e.g., cell death) through the arrest of the cell cycle and the induction of apoptosis in cancer cells. The overall molecular mechanisms of emodin include cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and the promotion of the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, glutathione S-transferase P, N-acetyltransferase, and glutathione phase I and II detoxification enzymes while inhibiting angiogenesis, invasion, migration, chemical-induced carcinogen-DNA adduct formation, HER2/neu, CKII kinase, and p34cdc2 kinase in human cancer cells. Hopefully, this summary will provide information regarding the actions of emodin in cancer cells and broaden the application potential of chemotherapy to additional cancer patients in the future.

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Background Biological invasions are a major ecological and socio-economic problem in many parts of the world. Despite an explosion of research in recent decades, much remains to be understood about why some species become invasive whereas others do not. Recently, polyploidy (whole genome duplication) has been proposed as an important determinant of invasiveness in plants. Genome duplication has played a major role in plant evolution and can drastically alter a plant's genetic make-up, morphology, physiology and ecology within only one or a few generations. This may allow some polyploids to succeed in strongly fluctuating environments and/or effectively colonize new habitats and, thus, increase their potential to be invasive. Scope We synthesize current knowledge on the importance of polyploidy for the invasion (i.e. spread) of introduced plants. We first aim to elucidate general mechanisms that are involved in the success of polyploid plants and translate this to that of plant invaders. Secondly, we provide an overview of ploidal levels in selected invasive alien plants and explain how ploidy might have contributed to their success. Conclusions Polyploidy can be an important factor in species invasion success through a combination of (1) 'pre-adaptation', whereby polyploid lineages are predisposed to conditions in the new range and, therefore, have higher survival rates and fitness in the earliest establishment phase; and (2) the possibility for subsequent adaptation due to a larger genetic diversity that may assist the 'evolution of invasiveness'. Alternatively, polyploidization may play an important role by (3) restoring sexual reproduction following hybridization or, conversely, (4) asexual reproduction in the absence of suitable mates. We, therefore, encourage invasion biologists to incorporate assessments of ploidy in their studies of invasive alien species.

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Aim of the study This study uses historical texts in order to obtain information on the natural products used in traditional medicines in European/Mediterranean therapeutics over the last two millennia. The information obtained may lead to new directions in the area of drug discovery, as recent research has demonstrated the continued promise of looking to natural products for bioactive compounds. Researchers have increasingly turned to traditional medicines to provide clues as to which natural products to investigate, but the oral traditions on which much of this medical knowledge rests are often unstable. Thus researchers have been prompted to use historical medical texts, as this study does, to find potential sources of new drugs. Materials and methods This study uses twelve Mediterranean/European medical texts from the 5th century BC to the 19th century AD to compile a list of the most commonly used "simples"--or single action drugs substances--used in therapeutics in traditional European medicine. This list was then compared to present-day herbal pharmacopoeia as represented by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Results This study finds that traditional European materia medica was based on a Dioscoridean tradition that lasted through the 19th century with remarkably little variation, but is significantly different from the present-day herbal pharmacopoeia according to the NIH. Conclusions The most prominent simples in the European/Mediterranean medical tradition can provide clues to further bioactive compounds that have not as of yet been fully exploited for their potential, but were clearly of great use in the past.

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Annonaceae are a pantropically distributed family found predominantly in rainforests, so they are megathermal taxa, whereas Rhamnaceae are a cosmopolitan family that tend to be found in xeric regions and may be classified as mesothermal. Phylogenetic analyses of these families are presented based on rbcL and trnL-F plastid DNA sequences. Likelihood ratio tests revealed rate heterogeneity in both phylogenetic trees and they were therefore made ultrametric using non-parametric rate smoothing and penalized likelihood. Divergence times were then estimated using fossil calibration points. The historical biogeography of these families that are species rich in different biomes is discussed and compared with other published reconstructions. Rhamnaceae and most lineages within Annonaceae are too young to have had their distribution patterns influenced by break-up of previously connected Gondwanan landmasses. Contrasts in the degree of geographical structure between these two families may be explained by differences in age and dispersal capability. In both groups, long-distance dispersal appears to have played a more significant role in establishing modern patterns than had previously been assumed. Both families also contain examples of recent diversification of species-rich lineages. An understanding of the processes responsible for shaping the distribution patterns of these families has contributed to our understanding of the historical assembly of the biomes that they occupy.

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Seedlings of 10 European tall-shrub species and the shade-tolerant tree Fagus sylvatica were grown at 0.3, 1.6, 11, and 63% daylight for 110 days on chalk grassland soil, and on a more nutrient-rich soil developed under Crataegus monogyna. Crataegus monogyna, Fagus, Juniperus communis, Cornus sanguinea, Ligustrum vulgare and Rosa canina suffered high mortality in 0.3% daylight, but only the first three had losses in 1.6%. Overall mortality in deep shade (0.3, 1.6%) was considerably lower in Euonymus europaeus, Rhamnus catharticus, Viburnum lantana and V. opulus. Average mortality in deep shade on grassland soil was negatively correlated with embryo-cum-endosperm dry mass (EEM). Overall mortality in deep shade was significantly greater with higher nutrient supply. In 63% daylight relative growth rate (RGR) was negatively correlated with log EEM, and positively with specific leaf area (SLA, leaf area/leaf dry mass) at time of planting but not at final harvest, i.e. differences in RGR were determined more by unit leaf rate (rate of dry mass gain/leaf area) in the latter part of the experiment. The responses of the species to irradiance and nutrient supply were appreciably different. Cornus, Ligustrum, Prunus spinosa, Rhamnus, and Rosa increased yield strongly under high irradiance on nutrient-poor soil, and responded also markedly to nutrients. Viburnum lantana and Euonymus grew relatively slowly in all treatments, but the former was responsive to nutrients, even in deep shade. Viburnum opulus was more responsive to irradiance but responded to nutrients only in 11% daylight. Crataegus grew more slowly on its 'own' soil than on grassland soil. Juniperus differed consistently from the other species, growing slowly, and responding strongly to irradiance. Fagus responded moderately to irradiance and not to nutrient supply. In shade allocation to roots decreased, while allocation to stem and to leaves increased generally. All species produced a smaller number and total area of leaves, and increased SLA and leaf area ratio (leaf area/total dry mass). Shoot and root lengths were reduced in shade. The results are discussed in relation to the roles of the various species during secondary succession, and their regeneration niches.

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